LONG COVID
Chu L, Bishof K, Dumes AA et al. The 2024 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine Long COVID Definition: What Clinicians Need to Know. J Gen Intern Med. (2025)
Ely EW, Brown LM, Fineberg HV. Long Covid Defined. N Engl J Med. (2024) 391(18):1746-1753.
Ewing AG, Joffe D, Blitshteyn S et al. Long COVID clinical evaluation, research and impact on society: a global expert consensus. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. (2025) 24(1):27.
Ewing AG, Salamon S, Pretorius E et al. Review of organ damage from COVID and Long COVID: a disease with a spectrum of pathology. Med Rev. (2024) 5(1):66-75.
Ma Y, Deng J, Liu Q et al. Long-Term Consequences of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health. (2023) 16;20(2):1613.
O'Mahoney LL, Routen A, Gillies C et al. The risk of Long Covid symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled studies. Nat Commun. (2025) 16:4249.
Zhang B, Wu Q, Jhaveri R et al. Long COVID associated with SARS-CoV-2 reinfection among children and adolescents in the omicron era (RECOVER-EHR): a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis (2025).
LONG COVID MECHANISMS
Immunology of Long COVID. Yale School of Medicine, updated 17 September 2024.
Davis HE, McCorkell L, Vogel JM et al. Long COVID: major findings, mechanisms and recommendations. Nat Rev Microbiol. (2023) 21:133-146.
Durstenfeld MS, Weiman S, Holtzman M et al. Long COVID and post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis and treatment: A Keystone Symposia report. Ann N Y Acad Sci. (2024) 1535:31-41.
Iwasaki A, Putrino D. Why we need a deeper understanding of the pathophysiology of long COVID. Lancet Infect Dis. (2023) 23(4):393-395.
Kell DB, Laubscher GJ, Pretorius E. A central role for amyloid fibrin microclots in long COVID/PASC: origins and therapeutic implications. Biochem J. (2022) 479(4):537-559.
Kruger A, Joffe D, Lloyd-Jones G et al. Vascular pathogenesis in acute and long covid: current insights and therapeutic outlook. Semin Thromb Hemost. (2024) 51(3):256-271.
Pretorius E, Venter C, Laubscher GJ et al. Prevalence of symptoms, comorbidities, fibrin amyloid microclots and platelet pathology in individuals with Long COVID/Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC). Cardiovasc Diabetol. (2022) 21(1):148.
AEROSOL PHYSICS
Duval D, Palmer JC, Tudge I et al. Long distance airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2: rapid systematic review. BMJ. (2022) 377:e068743.
Greenhalgh T, Jimenez JL, Prather KA et al. Ten scientific reasons in support of airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Lancet. (2021) 397:1603-1605.
Jimenez JL, Marr LC, Randall K et al. What were the historical reasons for the resistance to recognizing airborne transmission during the COVID-19 pandemic? Indoor Air. (2022) 32:8:e13070.
Nikuri P, Maalouf A, Geneid A et al. Aerosol emission and exposure in non-invasive ventilation. Sci Rep. (2025) 15:14058.
Randall K, Ewing ET, Marr L et al. How Did We Get Here: What Are Droplets and Aerosols and How Far Do They Go? A Historical Perspective on the Transmission of Respiratory Infectious Diseases (2021). Available at SSRN.
Tang JW, Marr LC, Li Y et al. COVID-19 has redefined aerosol transmission. BMJ. (2021) 373:n913.
Wang CC, Prather KA, Sznitman J et al. Airborne transmission of respiratory viruses. Science. (2021) 373. eabd9149.
MITIGATION STRATEGIES
VENTILATION
Morawska L, Allen J, Bahnfleth W et al. Mandating indoor air quality for public buildings. Science. (2024) 383:1418-1420.
HEPA PURIFIERS
What is a HEPA filter? Environmental Protection Agency, updated 4 September 2024.
Frydas IS, Kermenidou K, Karypidou M et al. SARS-CoV-2 airborne detection within different departments of a COVID-19 hospital building and evaluation of air cleaners in air viral load reduction. J Aerosol Sci. (2025) 187:106587.
Morris AC, Sharrocks K, Bousfield R et al. The Removal of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and Other Microbial Bioaerosols by Air Filtration on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Surge Units. Clin Infect Dis. (2022) 75(1):e97-e101.
MASKS
Greenhalgh T, MacIntyre CR, Baker MG et al. Masks and respirators for prevention of respiratory infections: a state of the science review. Clin Microbiol Rev. (2024) 37:e00124-23.
Lee SJ, Kim E, Im JH et al. Effect of Personal Protective Equipment on the Prevention of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Healthcare Workers. J Korean Med Sci. (2025) 40(43):e276.
Li L, Zhao X, Li Z et al. COVID-19: Performance study of microplastic inhalation risk posed by wearing masks. J Hazard Mater (2021) 411:124955.
CO2 MONITORS
Iwamura N, Tsutsumi K. SARS-CoV-2 airborne infection probability estimated by using indoor carbon dioxide. Environ Sci Pollut Res. (2023) 30:79227-79240.
VACCINATION
Australian vaccination guidelines. COVID-19 vaccine advice and recommendations. Australian Government Department of Health, Disability and Ageing, updated 8 September 2025.
Liu B, Scaria A, Stepien S et al. Effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccine boosters for reducing COVID-19 mortality among people aged 65 years or older, Australia, August 2023 - February 2024: a retrospective observational cohort study. Med J Aust (2025) 223 (8): 418-422.
FAR UVC (222NM)
Carter TJ, Shaw DR, Eadie E et al. The Impact of UVC Light on Indoor Air Chemistry: A Modeling Study. Environ Sci Technol. (2025) 59(31): 16543-16555.
Eadie E, Hiwar W, Fletcher L et al. Far-UVC (222 nm) efficiently inactivates an airborne pathogen in a room-sized chamber. Sci Rep. (2022) 12(1):4373.
SALINE NASAL SPRAY
Gandhi K, Paczkowski F, Sowerby L. Washing illness away: a systematic review of the impact of nasal irrigation and spray on COVID-19. Laryngoscope. (2025) 135(2): 517-528.
CARRAGEENAN NASAL SPRAY
Figueroa JM, Lombardo ME, Dogliotti A et al. Efficacy of a Nasal Spray Containing Iota-Carrageenan in the Postexposure Prophylaxis of COVID-19 in Hospital Personnel Dedicated to Patients Care with COVID-19 Disease. J Gen Intern Med. (2021) 14: 6277–6286.
Jessop ZM, Gibson J, Lim JY et al. A study protocol for a double-blind randomised placebo-controlled trial evaluating the efficacy of carrageenan nasal and throat spray for COVID-19 prophylaxis-ICE-COVID. Trials. (2022) 23:
CPC MOUTHWASH
Onozuka D, Konishi K, Takatera S et al. A multicenter, randomized, open-label, placebo-controlled clinical trial of the effect of cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) mouthwash and on-demand aqueous chlorine dioxide mouthwash on SARS-CoV-2 viral titer in patients with mild COVID-19. J Evid Based Dent Pract. (2024) 24(4).